意义(meaning)
在哲学中，藉由参照表达（比方说，字词或句子）的指涉（也就是说，在表达与其所指定者的关系）以获知表达的意思。举例来说，「最高的人」意思是「身高比任何人都高的那个人」，但这句话所指涉的可能是无名氏（John Doe），或着谁也不是，因为两个到三个人中也可以有最高的人。因此，并不适合说，字词意指的是字词所指定之事物（或着字词让我们所想到的事物）。进一步的问题使这个意义的指涉理论更加困扰。两个表达也许拥有相同的指涉对象，但其意义并不相同。（举例来说，「晨星」和「黄昏星」都表示相同的星球，但并不拥有准确相同的意义。）有意义的措辞也能声称有所指涉，但实际上并没有真的指涉什麽。（举例来说，「法国在位的国王」这句话具有意义，但今天并不存在有法国国王这个人。）相比之下，语义学的理论宣称，最好是以真理的词语而非指涉，来解释意义；也就是，一个字词的意义应该以它对所处句子中的真理条件的助益来解释。语义学理论的难处导致采用获得维根斯坦和奥斯汀之作品所启发的意义理论。它承认，并不是所有的字词都指涉某个对象，也不是所有的言辞都非真即伪；共通於所有字词与句子的是，人们在言语中使用它们（参阅speech act theory）；它们的意义，因此可以只不过是字词和句子的使用而已；或着以另一种不同的方式来阐述，字词语句的意义在於支配字词语句之运用的法则。亦请参阅semantics。
English version：
meaning
In philosophy, the sense of an expression (e.g., a word or sentence) by contrast with its reference (i.e., the relation between expressions and what they designate). For example, "the tallest person" means "the person whose height is greater than that of any other," but its reference may be John Doe－or no one, since two or more can be tallest. Thus, it will not do to say that words mean the thing they designate (or make us think of). Further problems beset this referential theory of meaning. Two expressions may have the same referent but not the same meaning (e.g., "the morning star" and "the evening star" denote the same planet, yet do not have exactly the same meaning). Meaningful phrases can also pretend to refer without really doing so (e.g., "the present king of France" is meaningful even though there is no such person). By contrast, semantic theories claim that the notion of meaning is best explained in terms of truth rather than reference, that a word's meaning should be explained in terms of its contribution to the truth conditions of the sentences in which it occurs. Difficulties with semantic theories led to the use theory of meaning, inspired by the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein and J. L. Austin. It admits that not all words refer to something, and not all utterances are true or false; that what is common to all words and sentences is that people use them in speech (see speech act theory); and that their meaning may consequently be nothing more than their use, or, alternatively, the rules that govern their employment. See also semantics.
